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ОглавлениеUnit 1. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Unit 2. DIPLOMACY, NEGOTIATIONS AND BARGAINING Unit 5. WAR AND INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS Unit 6. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Для бесплатного чтения доступна только часть главы! Для чтения полной версии необходимо приобрести книгуUnit 5. WAR AND INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTSSECTION 1WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED
The Essence of War The history of a mankind is a history of wars among tribes and nations. War has always been paid a great attention to. Ancient Greek philosophers were the first to examine this problem. And although every epoch had a great number of philosophers, investigating the problem of war, there is no common opinion about this phenomenon. But it is quite clear that when diplomacy in international relations breaks down, governments frequently resort to the use of armed force. And war is sometimes viewed as simply another form of diplomacy – a deliberate, conscious policy designed to achieve political goals. At other times war is seen as the result of unplanned responses to the environment based either on a human instinct for violence or on complex emotions of fear, frustration, and anger. In other words, war, defined as a large-scale organized violence between countries, can be seen as merely one expression of the fact that the humans have range of normal behavioral responses to conflict, violence being one of them. No single perspective provides a complete understanding of war, however, wars occur in multiple forms and have multiple courses. The causes of war can be found at the individual, nation-state, and international system levels. There are five basic motives for war: 1) wars to seize or to take back territory; 2) wars to redeem people; 3) wars to spread religious or ideology; 4) revolutionary wars; 5) civil wars and wars of separation. All these motives can be found in any period of the history. But we should not forget that till the twentieth century wars in most cases did not concern civilians. With the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century and the scientific and technological revolution of the twentieth century and creating of new weapons the world became more dangerous. The war stopped to distinguish the theatre of operations and the home front. The life of civilians was threatened. And at the beginning of the twentieth century the war is becoming total. It caused the changing the conception of the national security, where the prevailing attention was paid to military aspects. And security was identified here with the absence of military threat. Increasing of the military power and the opportunity of its use was becoming a threat to the universe. Each war in the twentieth century was becoming more and more destructive. The First World War occurred because of the wish to separate the world and to govern its large regions. But this turned out to be impossible. And all the plans were failed, causing great sacrifices. The Second World War began because of the same reason but it is characterized with more bitterness, because these were ideologically and politically incompatible fascism and communism that happened to be in the center of this struggle. It caused much more deaths. The cold war happened at the period when a nuclear bomb had already been created. And the understanding of the danger of using it saved the world. All these three global conflicts proved gradually decrease of opportunities of using military power. It probably taught politicians that war involves enormous human, political and economic costs for both winners and losers. Today it has reached new, unprecedented levels of potential destructiveness. So theoretically any war can be supposed, especially taking into consideration the fact that there are two main aspects threatening the peace nowadays: lack of stability in the developing countries and accumulated weapons in Europe after political and social power regrouping. Many researchers of this problem devote much time to investigating perspectives of war in the twenty-first century. Some of them are sure that fanatical representatives of Moslemism may begin to disturb frontiers of neighbor countries that expound other religions. There are scientists considering that technological progress will help to refuse from using nuclear weapons. But new methods of conducting war will be used – artificial earthquake or change of weather conditions on the enemy’s territory. According to another point of view wars among nations are coming to an end. But wars among civilizations will soon play the main role in the world. Such wars will be crueler if they are based on religious ground. But considering that states’ leaders understand the danger of contemporary war and there are no madmen among politicians, the probability of this “form of diplomacy” is decreasing. WORD STUDYExercise 1. Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions: to examine the problem; to resort to the use of armed force; responses to the environment; human instinct for violence; multiple forms; the home front; prevailing attention; great sacrifices; to involve human costs; perspectives of war; to expound other religions; to be based on religious ground. Exercise 2. Give English equivalents of the following expressions. Make up sentences with them: национальная безопасность; отсутствие военной угрозы; беспрецедентный уровень; принять во внимание; полное отсутствие стабильности; в настоящее время; исследовать проблему; потерпеть неудачу; захватить территорию; гражданское население; создавать оружие. Exercise 3. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms: modern, to turn out, to seize, immense, deliberate, damaging, to rule, to occur, contemporary, destructive, to capture, to govern, enormous, conscious. Exercise 4. Explain the meaning of the following words and expression: a) war; b) diplomacy; c) industrial revolution; d) weapon; e) politician; f) lack of stability. Exercise 5. Complete the text with the words and word combinations from the box. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. One of the simple explanations for war as a phenomenon is that it is _____ by the lust of men for _____. 2. War caused the changing the conception of the national security, where the _____ attention was paid to military aspects. 3. World War I proved so _____ that there was a demand in 1919 for a more _____ method of _____ the power problem. 4. At other times was either burst upon a startled world (the Korean War) or else to _____ although expected (the World War III _____ by many in 1948-1949). MISCELLANEOUS
Explanatory Notes Military adj. Of or for soldiers, an army, war on land. Military applies to anything having to do with armies or soldiers, e.g. a military adviser, military service, military aviation, military law, military uniform. Militant adj. Ready and willing to fight; warlike. Militant implies a fighting disposition, but seldom suggests the furthering of one’s own ends. In modern use, militant usually implies extreme devotion to some cause, movement, or institution, and energetic, often self-sacrificing prosecution of its ends, e.g. the acquiescent rather than the militant type; a militant campaign. Exercise 1. Translate the following phrases into Russian; use them in sentences or situations:
Exercise 2. Answer the following questions. 1. What military ranks do you know? 2. What are the duties of a military attaché (adviser)? 1. What is the military age in our country? 2. What military alliances do you know? Could you characterize them? 3. What can you say about military expenditure in Russia? 4. What can you say about military expenditure in the U.S.A.? 5. What kind of person can be called militant? Exercise 3. Paraphrase the following phrases and sentences using one of the words under discussion. 1. Special clothes worn by soldiers and officers. 2. A fighting mood. 3. An army officer attached to his nation’s embassy. 4. A person ready and willing to fight for a cause. 5. Service in the armed forces. Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks using one of the words under discussion. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. Israel had hit two guerilla bases, a gun battery, two _____ posts and three _____ camps inside Syria. 2. As well as being one of the airline’s more senior captains, Demerest was a _____ campaigner for the Air Line Pilots Association. 3. Once the only Americans in Vietnam were a few observers, then they became technical advisers, some of whom were _____ advisers. 4. At no time has there been any refutation of their statements from any official Government or _____ source. 5. Syria yesterday called for joint Arab _____ action. 6. He feels it necessary to have the _____ viewpoint put. 7. A mass _____ trial of 185 Turkish Left-wingers opened in a _____ barracks in Ankara yesterday. 8. Presenting a petition on behalf of himself and 16 other defendants, Dogu Perincek said they rejected the _____ court as a creation of a fascist _____ dictatorship. Exercise 5. Complete and expand on the following sentences using one of the words under discussion. 1. At the age of 18... 2. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is... 3. The students felt extremely... 4. The leaders of the union called for... 5. The people of the country were indignant... 6. The soldier was tried... Exercise 6. Use the following phrases in situations. 1. To scale down all military activities. 2. A policy of military neutrality. 3. A close military and economic alliance. Внимание! Авторские права на книгу "Английский язык для специалистов в области международных отношений. Учебное пособие" (Бочарова Е.П., Свиридюк Н.А., Тараненко О.И.) охраняются законодательством! |
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